Denier - Richard II and successors

The Norman denier series spanning the late Capetian consolidation period occupies a peculiar administrative limbo: Richard II died in 1026, yet the coinage type bearing his name continued under Richard III and Robert the Magnificent with minimal modification, a deliberate continuity that reflected the duchy's interest in monetary stability over dynastic self-promotion. Norman lords of this period were simultaneously vassals of the French crown and, after 1066 in the making, rulers assembling the machinery of conquest.

Billon quality degraded measurably across this half-century of production as silver content was progressively diluted — a pattern well-documented in Dumas's analysis of French feudal coinage and reflected in surviving die studies.