Denier - Louis II / Louis III Palace mint

The date range here spans the reigns of two separate rulers — Louis II the German and his son Louis III the Younger — making precise attribution to either king genuinely difficult without die analysis. The Palace mint designation itself reflects the itinerant nature of Carolingian royal administration: no fixed capital, coinage following the court. The Treaty of Verdun in 843, which fractured Charlemagne's empire into three successor kingdoms, is effectively the opening event that makes this coin possible as an East Frankish issue rather than an imperial one.