1 Kupang - Ali ibn Munawar Shah

Ali ibn Munawar Shah ruled Aceh for roughly three years before being deposed — one of several sultans whose reigns were cut short by the aggressive court politics that characterized Aceh in the late sixteenth century. The sultanate was at this point a significant pepper-trade power, and gold coinage denominated in kupang served commercial exchange with Indian, Arab, and Portuguese merchants operating across the Malacca Strait. The relatively low fineness compared to earlier Acehnese gold issues may reflect pragmatic economics rather than debasement policy — sustaining mint output under a reign too brief to stabilize revenue.