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The heavy cast bronzes attributed to uncertain Umbrian centers were produced during one of the most volatile periods in Italian history — the lead-up to and early years of the Second Punic War. Hannibal's invasion after 218 BC disrupted the monetary systems of Rome's Italian allies profoundly, and many of these regional aes grave series were either curtailed or never completed. Attribution to a specific Umbrian city remains contested; Haeberlin's groupings, still the foundational reference, rely heavily on typological clustering rather than firm archaeological provenance.