Denier - Charlemagne

This issue belongs to the earliest phase of Carolingian monetary reform, before Charlemagne's pivotal 793–794 overhaul that raised the silver denier's weight to roughly 1.7g and standardized production across the empire's scattered mints. The lighter pre-reform standard it represents was inherited largely from Pepin III's earlier restructuring, itself a break from the degraded Merovingian coinage that had made trade accounting nearly impossible.

Morrison & Grunthal's cataloguing of this type drew heavily on hoard evidence, as mint attribution for pre-reform Carolingian deniers remains contested — die-links are the primary tool for grouping output, and signed mint names on coins of this period are exceptional rather than routine.